- Introduction
- The Danish School System
- Grammar in Use
Noticing
Form and Function
How to “Grammar up” or “Grammar down”
- Introducing two different task books
PPP and consciousness-raising in task books
- Sum Up
Introduction
What comes to mind when you hear the word grammar?
For many years, in my case, the word grammar was linked to a bad feeling, a feeling of not being able to understand the concept of irregular verbs, past tense, and genitive among others. I felt I simply couldn’t understand grammar, and therefore I didn’t want to deal with it. Furthermore, I didn’t feel I needed a deeper understanding of it, as long as I could make myself understood I felt no need to know grammar.
In the past years grammar has begun to mean something else to me. I have begun to have an interest in grammar which means that I now think grammar is “cool” to understand and work with, and in order to succeed in communication you need to know grammar.
Today I see grammar as a complex unit. If I had to create an image inside my head in order to explain what grammar does in a language, I would imagine a brick wall. All the words are the bricks and grammar is the mortar that holds the wall together
To write an article of how to teach grammar I found would be an almost impossible task, because teachers are different and so are students, we each learn in our own way and this makes it impossible to give an overall description of how to teach grammar. I, therefore, decided to focus on: in which ways students’ task-books provide grammar input in various ways compared to what the Danish Ministry of Education provide in their guidelines?
The Danish School System
By the end of year nine Danish students have to be able to speak and write English in a way where central grammatical rules are being followed (English Curriculum 2009, aims at the end of grade 9). In the syllabus guideline the Ministry of Education states that: in grades 3-4 students should develop knowledge about simple grammatical areas, such as singular and plural, and past and present tense, this should be accomplishedce by; language-observations and games. For grades 5-7; isolated grammatical exercises shouldn’t be prioritized, but should be linked to the functional use of the language. In grades 8-9; grammar exercises can be used to create an overview aimed at the individual student (English Curriculum 2009, syllabus guidelines for grades 3-4, 5-7 and 8-9 in English).
Grammar in Use
Noticing
One way to have students use grammar correctly is by having them notice patterns of grammar. Hedge gives an example of how the noticing of “don’t” provides the students with an awareness of the relation between form and function, and “the rule involved in placing “don’t” before a main verb” (Hedge 2000, 146). By being able to notice a specific pattern, students should be able to apply these patterns when they speak or write, which will fulfill one of the goals in the National Curriculum. In order for students to notice specific language structures, they have to be presented with tasks which involve a conscious process (Thornbury 2005, 36).
One way to carry out tasks, which was also recommended by one of my teachers in Sweden (Bo Lundal, Febuary 2011) is Presentation-Practice-production. By using this method teachers present a piece of grammar to their students, the students practice the structure and in the end the students are assigned freer activities in order to produce the grammar in the right form (Hedge 2000, 164).
“Learning linguistic items is not a linear process – learners do not master one item and then move on to another. In fact, the learning curve for a single item is not linear either. The curve is filled with peaks and valleys, progress and backsliding” (Diane Larsen-Freeman quoted by; Thornbury 2005, 37)
The argument set forward by Diane Larsen-Freeman, supports the consciousness-raising principle more than it supports the PPP.
PPP= input leads to output
Consciousness-raising on the other hand works in a more complex way
Input à noticing à intake à output
The view on learning which supports the consciousness-raising method doesn’t assume a direct link between input and output, but views the process of learning grammar as a process over time. This involves students noticing the language, then taking it in, before they are able to use the grammar units in the language. (Thornbury 2005, 38). Also, if relying on PPP students might be able to produce the right form in a practice exercise but may not be able to transfer their knowledge to communication outside the classroom (Larsen-Freeman 2001, 39). If relying on PPP, with out returning to what has been taught before and not viewing grammar learning as a non-linear curve, teachers can`t make sure that students have taken in and are able to use what has been taught.
I will later return to how PPP and consciousness-raising can be found in students’ task books.
Form and function
Another thing to take into consideration when teaching grammar is whether the focus is on form or function.
When the focus is on form, the focus is on correctness. When the focus is on function the focus is on the context.
Teachers shouldn’t attempt to focus on form and function at the same time, because by doing so communication can break down. One example of this is negative feedback provided by the teacher. Negative feedback occurs when teachers correct students in a negative way, and meaning breaks down. Negative feedback isn’t beneficial for the students, because it only focuses on form and not function. On the other hand, if a teacher never focuses on the form, and only focuses on the function of the language, students are not provided with the input they need in order to create an understood language. If students are not provided with rules of how the language works, there is a risk of fossilization. Therefore, teachers need to teach their students to focus on form and function at the same time, in order to become fluent (Thornbury 2005, 31 and lectures by Bo Lundal, Feb 2011). I might contradict myself, but to focus on form and function at the same time, is kind of the same as being able to walk and chew gum at the same time which you should be able to do (Thornbury 2005, 31). Teaching should, therefore, focus on either form or function but students will at some point be able to focus on both. For the oral and the written exam at the end of grade 9, students need to be able to use a clear and understood language where they apply central grammatical rules, therefore, students need to focus on form as well as function at the same time (English Curriculum 2009, aims at the end of grade 9).
Students, in schools that follow the Danish curriculum, should experience a development from a focus on specific grammar rules involving the whole class (grade 3-4), to a more individual focus of what each student needs in order to reach the goals set for the exam in grade 9 (English curriculum from the Danish Ministry of education 2009).This can also been viewed as internalization, because the students move from been told what they need to focus on, to internal thinking (Vygotsky at. Cameron 2011, 7).
How to “grammar up” or “grammar down”
Thornbury writes in his book “Uncovering grammar”, that one way to make students more aware of their use of grammar and using grammar correctly, is by telling the students to “grammar up”. This means that you raise the stakes for a specific task. One way to raise the stakes can be by having students do presentations in front of the class, or if the task should be even more “grammared up” by doing presentations in front of another class (Thornbury 2005, 21). When students are asked to do presentations a pressure to “get it right” will occur, this can also be referred to as; “being on one’s linguistic best behavior” (Thornbury 2005, 28). By wanting to “get it right”, students might be more aware of mistakes they make, and correct themselves while speaking. One example could be:
“He walk… no walks to school every day.” In this case the student identifies the error while speaking, and corrects it right away, without any interruption from the teacher (observation from a Danish school Nov. 2010).
Pit Stop #9 task book, page 59
When playing a game you release some of the pressure some students might experience otherwise. Even though the game has a grammar focus, it is presented in a fun way. By competing, some students might find it a more relaxed exercise compared to doing presentations, because the focus will be on getting the highest number of points. In this game you still have to use the language correctly, since you don’t get any points otherwise (Oral group exam at Malmö Högskola 3.15.2011)
Introducing two different task books
I have chosen to look at two different task books published 14 years apart. The two books are: “The New Choice – Workbook for Grade 9” Published in 1995, and Pit Stop # 9 Task Book, Published in 2009. When flipping through the pages it is obvious that the books are published 14 years apart. The New Choice has no colors in it, except for green, and uses only few pictures. The tasks are not directly linked to the text book but are focused on specific grammar exercises. In the text book (The New Choice- reader for Niende, 1995), however, there are tasks to work with for each topic. Pit Stop on the other hand provides a lot of pictures and drawings, and the tasks are directly linked to the text book (Pit stop # 9 topic book, 2009). In the Pit Stop text book there are no exercises, only texts. Another feature which makes the books different is the fact that Pit Stop uses English as the main language. I have only found Danish used on page 142, where verb tenses are explained. The New Choice on the other hand explains everything in Danish. Most of the exercises in The New Choice are written, and the book provides space for the writing. In Pit Stop there are no places to write, students are asked to write on a sheet of paper.
These exercises are from The New Choice Workbook (p. 6 and 107). These examples show how the workbook focuses on form and function. When you look at the first exercise students have do decide which form is the right form of “to be” in the present and past tense. The other exercise is more focused on function, because here the students need to write on their own. The first exercise isn’t linked to the reading book, but for the second exercise the students can find information about London by reading one of the texts (The New Choice – Reader 1995, 161). Comparing these exercises to the once you find in Pit Stop your find a lot of differences.
Another feature Pit Stop uses is the variation of how the tasks have to be carried out. Looking through the different themes in the book, and the tasks that support the themes, there is a great variety of tasks. Each task is also supported by a symbol which tells students what kind of exercise they are going to work on. The tasks are either written or oral, can be done in pairs, groups or alone, and some tasks are presentations or small talks with peers. Flipping through The New choice task book, most of the exercises are written, and either done alone or in pairs, there is not a lot of group work planed.
PPP and consciousness-raising in task books
When comparing the two task books it is hard not to miss that there has been a change in the way English is taught in Denmark. It is clear that Pit Stop follows the resent standards set by the Danish Ministry of Education in 2009. Using The New Choice, you are still able to follow the standards, but teachers will have to adapt the way the tasks are carried out to what is required at the end of year 9, since grammar exercises are no longer required, only as a help for the individual student.
It is not only the way English is used in the book that make the two books different the way grammar is explained is also different. The New Choice explains all of the grammar units in the book. These explanations scaffold students in order to carry out the tasks correctly. On the other hand the explanations don’t support consciousness-raising, since the students are not asked to notice the patterns when doing the tasks. However, the tasks in The New Choice are repeated in different ways, supporting the argument by Larsen-Freeman, that grammar isn`t a linier process and therefore should be repeated. In Pit Stop there are almost no explanations of how to use the grammar units in context; it is left to the students to come up with an explanation of how the grammar units work in a context.
The way grammar rules are presented to the students can be either explicit or implicit (Ellis 1998, and Lectures by Bo Lundal Feb 2011). Explicit knowledge is knowledge about grammar and implicit knowledge is knowledge of grammar. The New Choice presents the grammar units in a very explicit way, because the task book provides the students with all of the rules, which they then have to understand and use. Pit Stop’s task book on the other hand presents their grammar units in a very implicit way. They don’t provide the rules for why certain grammar patterns work they way they do, they leave it up the students to find the rules. By using en implicit approach the book requires students to become active thinkers (Ellis 1998). They are provided with varies data in which grammar patterns can be discovered, they just have to work out how the grammar patterns work. On the next page there is an example of how Pit Stop uses the implicit approach.
PPP can there also be explained as explicit knowledge.
Pit Stop # 9 task book page 142
Another thing to take into consideration when looking at how tasks are carried out is whether the students interact with each other. When students interact, collective scaffolding can occur (Larsen-Freeman 2001, 38). According to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory people learn while interacting, and while interacting students can, furthermore, support each other. Task books can provide this opportunity by aiming their task at groups or pairs. To sum it all up, task books can support different tasks by providing grammar rules, or they can support collective scaffolding by presenting tasks where students can support each other. Pit Stop focuses a lot on students’ interaction in varies ways, from each explanation it is very clear how the tasks should be carried out. The New Choice on the other hand doesn’t provide the same variety, but the teacher can decide how to work with the questions posted, and in that way vary the way students work and interact with each other.
Sum up
Looking at two very different teaching books, published 14 years apart, provides a very good understanding of what student teachers can come across when they have to go out and teach in the near future. At the same time it shows what some teachers right now have as their main resource. Some teaching books provide in- depth explanations of grammar rules, others leave it to the students to find out what the rules are.
There is also a big difference in how the tasks have to be carried out. Keeping in mind the changes in the curriculum from the Danish Ministry of Education, it is not surprising that books published many years apart have different approaches to how grammar should be taught. Teachers provided with old books will have to adapt their teaching in order to fulfill the criteria for the final exam in grade 9. The way students have to interact while doing the different task is also different. It is interesting to notice how Danish is not a part of Pit Stop, whereas, in The New Choice it is the main language. There is no longer the same focus on grammar exercises, they have become a part of the teaching, which is what the Ministry of Education states in their guidelines. For the Exam, however, students need to know about form and function in order to fulfill the criteria for the oral and written exam at the end of grade 9.
What I find to be the most important aspect of teaching grammar, and teaching in general, is that teachers need to know their students and need to know which way of learning their students adapt to. If teachers can adapt the tasks to aim at individual students' needs, the course book shouldn’t make a difference, as long as every student learn what is required for the exam.
List of reference:
Hedge, Tricia (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers: Oxford University Press
Thornbury, Scott (2005) Uncovering Grammar – How to Help Grammar Emerge. Macmillan
Cameron, Lynne (2011, 14th edition) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Language Teaching Library. Cambridge University Press
Carter, Chris., Kendon, T., Buhl, M. D., Hansen, D. J. (2009) Pit Stop #9 Task Book . Alinea
Carter, Chris., Kendon, T., Buhl, M. D., Hansen, D. J. (2009) Pit Stop #9 Topic book. Alinea
Watts, Jeremy., Andersen, B. P., Petersen, J. K. (1995) The New Choise – Workbook for niende. Gyndendals Undervisning
Watts, Jeremy., Andersen, B. P., Petersen, J. K. (1995) The New Choise – Reader for niende. Gyndendals Undervisning
The Danish National Curriculum printed by the Danish Ministry of Education 2009
Lectures by Bo Lundal, Malmo hoegskola, febuary 2011
Oral group exam at Malmö Högskola 3.15-11, on grammar is used in task books
Freeman-Larsen, Diane, Chapter 5 Grammar in: Carter, R. and Nuan, D. (2001) The Cambridge Guide to: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Ellish, R. and Gaies, S.(1998) Impact Grammar. Hong Kong: Longman
